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FORUM PYTHON
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Python Documentation contents — Python v2.6.2 documentation
Navigation
index
modules
|
next
|
Python v2.6.2 documentation
»
Python Documentation contents
¶
What’s New in Python
What’s New in Python 2.6
Python 3.0
Changes to the Development Process
New Issue Tracker: Roundup
New Documentation Format: reStructuredText Using Sphinx
PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement
Writing Context Managers
The contextlib module
PEP 366: Explicit Relative Imports From a Main Module
PEP 370: Per-user
site-packages
Directory
PEP 371: The
multiprocessing
Package
PEP 3101: Advanced String Formatting
PEP 3105:
print
As a Function
PEP 3110: Exception-Handling Changes
PEP 3112: Byte Literals
PEP 3116: New I/O Library
PEP 3118: Revised Buffer Protocol
PEP 3119: Abstract Base Classes
PEP 3127: Integer Literal Support and Syntax
PEP 3129: Class Decorators
PEP 3141: A Type Hierarchy for Numbers
The
fractions
Module
Other Language Changes
Optimizations
Interpreter Changes
New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
The
ast
module
The
future_builtins
module
The
json
module: JavaScript Object Notation
The
plistlib
module: A Property-List Parser
ctypes Enhancements
Improved SSL Support
Build and C API Changes
Port-Specific Changes: Windows
Port-Specific Changes: Mac OS X
Port-Specific Changes: IRIX
Porting to Python 2.6
Acknowledgements
What’s New in Python 2.5
PEP 308: Conditional Expressions
PEP 309: Partial Function Application
PEP 314: Metadata for Python Software Packages v1.1
PEP 328: Absolute and Relative Imports
PEP 338: Executing Modules as Scripts
PEP 341: Unified try/except/finally
PEP 342: New Generator Features
PEP 343: The ‘with’ statement
Writing Context Managers
The contextlib module
PEP 352: Exceptions as New-Style Classes
PEP 353: Using ssize_t as the index type
PEP 357: The ‘__index__’ method
Other Language Changes
Interactive Interpreter Changes
Optimizations
New, Improved, and Removed Modules
The ctypes package
The ElementTree package
The hashlib package
The sqlite3 package
The wsgiref package
Build and C API Changes
Port-Specific Changes
Porting to Python 2.5
Acknowledgements
What’s New in Python 2.4
PEP 218: Built-In Set Objects
PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers
PEP 289: Generator Expressions
PEP 292: Simpler String Substitutions
PEP 318: Decorators for Functions and Methods
PEP 322: Reverse Iteration
PEP 324: New subprocess Module
PEP 327: Decimal Data Type
Why is Decimal needed?
The
Decimal
type
The
Context
type
PEP 328: Multi-line Imports
PEP 331: Locale-Independent Float/String Conversions
Other Language Changes
Optimizations
New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
cookielib
doctest
Build and C API Changes
Port-Specific Changes
Porting to Python 2.4
Acknowledgements
What’s New in Python 2.3
PEP 218: A Standard Set Datatype
PEP 255: Simple Generators
PEP 263: Source Code Encodings
PEP 273: Importing Modules from ZIP Archives
PEP 277: Unicode file name support for Windows NT
PEP 278: Universal Newline Support
PEP 279: enumerate()
PEP 282: The logging Package
PEP 285: A Boolean Type
PEP 293: Codec Error Handling Callbacks
PEP 301: Package Index and Metadata for Distutils
PEP 302: New Import Hooks
PEP 305: Comma-separated Files
PEP 307: Pickle Enhancements
Extended Slices
Other Language Changes
String Changes
Optimizations
New, Improved, and Deprecated Modules
Date/Time Type
The optparse Module
Pymalloc: A Specialized Object Allocator
Build and C API Changes
Port-Specific Changes
Other Changes and Fixes
Porting to Python 2.3
Acknowledgements
What’s New in Python 2.2
Introduction
PEPs 252 and 253: Type and Class Changes
Old and New Classes
Descriptors
Multiple Inheritance: The Diamond Rule
Attribute Access
Related Links
PEP 234: Iterators
PEP 255: Simple Generators
PEP 237: Unifying Long Integers and Integers
PEP 238: Changing the Division Operator
Unicode Changes
PEP 227: Nested Scopes
New and Improved Modules
Interpreter Changes and Fixes
Other Changes and Fixes
Acknowledgements
What’s New in Python 2.1
Introduction
PEP 227: Nested Scopes
PEP 236: __future__ Directives
PEP 207: Rich Comparisons
PEP 230: Warning Framework
PEP 229: New Build System
PEP 205: Weak References
PEP 232: Function Attributes
PEP 235: Importing Modules on Case-Insensitive Platforms
PEP 217: Interactive Display Hook
PEP 208: New Coercion Model
PEP 241: Metadata in Python Packages
New and Improved Modules
Other Changes and Fixes
Acknowledgements
What’s New in Python 2.0
Introduction
What About Python 1.6?
New Development Process
Unicode
List Comprehensions
Augmented Assignment
String Methods
Garbage Collection of Cycles
Other Core Changes
Minor Language Changes
Changes to Built-in Functions
Porting to 2.0
Extending/Embedding Changes
Distutils: Making Modules Easy to Install
XML Modules
SAX2 Support
DOM Support
Relationship to PyXML
Module changes
New modules
IDLE Improvements
Deleted and Deprecated Modules
Acknowledgements
The Python Tutorial
1. Whetting Your Appetite
2. Using the Python Interpreter
2.1. Invoking the Interpreter
2.1.1. Argument Passing
2.1.2. Interactive Mode
2.2. The Interpreter and Its Environment
2.2.1. Error Handling
2.2.2. Executable Python Scripts
2.2.3. Source Code Encoding
2.2.4. The Interactive Startup File
3. An Informal Introduction to Python
3.1. Using Python as a Calculator
3.1.1. Numbers
3.1.2. Strings
3.1.3. Unicode Strings
3.1.4. Lists
3.2. First Steps Towards Programming
4. More Control Flow Tools
4.1.
if
Statements
4.2.
for
Statements
4.3. The
range()
Function
4.4.
break
and
continue
Statements, and
else
Clauses on Loops
4.5.
pass
Statements
4.6. Defining Functions
4.7. More on Defining Functions
4.7.1. Default Argument Values
4.7.2. Keyword Arguments
4.7.3. Arbitrary Argument Lists
4.7.4. Unpacking Argument Lists
4.7.5. Lambda Forms
4.7.6. Documentation Strings
4.8. Intermezzo: Coding Style
5. Data Structures
5.1. More on Lists
5.1.1. Using Lists as Stacks
5.1.2. Using Lists as Queues
5.1.3. Functional Programming Tools
5.1.4. List Comprehensions
5.1.5. Nested List Comprehensions
5.2. The
del
statement
5.3. Tuples and Sequences
5.4. Sets
5.5. Dictionaries
5.6. Looping Techniques
5.7. More on Conditions
5.8. Comparing Sequences and Other Types
6. Modules
6.1. More on Modules
6.1.1. Executing modules as scripts
6.1.2. The Module Search Path
6.1.3. “Compiled” Python files
6.2. Standard Modules
6.3. The
dir()
Function
6.4. Packages
6.4.1. Importing * From a Package
6.4.2. Intra-package References
6.4.3. Packages in Multiple Directories
7. Input and Output
7.1. Fancier Output Formatting
7.1.1. Old string formatting
7.2. Reading and Writing Files
7.2.1. Methods of File Objects
7.2.2. The
pickle
Module
8. Errors and Exceptions
8.1. Syntax Errors
8.2. Exceptions
8.3. Handling Exceptions
8.4. Raising Exceptions
8.5. User-defined Exceptions
8.6. Defining Clean-up Actions
8.7. Predefined Clean-up Actions
9. Classes
9.1. A Word About Terminology
9.2. Python Scopes and Name Spaces
9.3. A First Look at Classes
9.3.1. Class Definition Syntax
9.3.2. Class Objects
9.3.3. Instance Objects
9.3.4. Method Objects
9.4. Random Remarks
9.5. Inheritance
9.5.1. Multiple Inheritance
9.6. Private Variables
9.7. Odds and Ends
9.8. Exceptions Are Classes Too
9.9. Iterators
9.10. Generators
9.11. Generator Expressions
10. Brief Tour of the Standard Library
10.1. Operating System Interface
10.2. File Wildcards
10.3. Command Line Arguments
10.4. Error Output Redirection and Program Termination
10.5. String Pattern Matching
10.6. Mathematics
10.7. Internet Access
10.8. Dates and Times
10.9. Data Compression
10.10. Performance Measurement
10.11. Quality Control
10.12. Batteries Included
11. Brief Tour of the Standard Library – Part II
11.1. Output Formatting
11.2. Templating
11.3. Working with Binary Data Record Layouts
11.4. Multi-threading
11.5. Logging
11.6. Weak References
11.7. Tools for Working with Lists
11.8. Decimal Floating Point Arithmetic
12. What Now?
13. Interactive Input Editing and History Substitution
13.1. Line Editing
13.2. History Substitution
13.3. Key Bindings
13.4. Commentary
14. Floating Point Arithmetic: Issues and Limitations
14.1. Representation Error
Using Python
1. Command line and environment
1.1. Command line
1.1.1. Interface options
1.1.2. Generic options
1.1.3. Miscellaneous options
1.2. Environment variables
1.2.1. Debug-mode variables
2. Using Python on Unix platforms
2.1. Getting and installing the latest version of Python
2.1.1. On Linux
2.1.2. On FreeBSD and OpenBSD
2.1.3. On OpenSolaris
2.2. Building Python
2.3. Python-related paths and files
2.4. Miscellaneous
2.5. Editors
3. Using Python on Windows
3.1. Installing Python
3.2. Alternative bundles
3.3. Configuring Python
3.3.1. Excursus: Setting environment variables
3.3.2. Finding the Python executable
3.3.3. Finding modules
3.3.4. Executing scripts
3.4. Additional modules
3.4.1. PyWin32
3.4.2. Py2exe
3.4.3. WConio
3.5. Compiling Python on Windows
3.6. Other resources
4. Using Python on a Macintosh
4.1. Getting and Installing MacPython
4.1.1. How to run a Python script
4.1.2. Running scripts with a GUI
4.1.3. Configuration
4.2. The IDE
4.3. Installing Additional Python Packages
4.4. GUI Programming on the Mac
4.5. Distributing Python Applications on the Mac
4.6. Application Scripting
4.7. Other Resources
The Python Language Reference
1. Introduction
1.1. Alternate Implementations
1.2. Notation
2. Lexical analysis
2.1. Line structure
2.1.1. Logical lines
2.1.2. Physical lines
2.1.3. Comments
2.1.4. Encoding declarations
2.1.5. Explicit line joining
2.1.6. Implicit line joining
2.1.7. Blank lines
2.1.8. Indentation
2.1.9. Whitespace between tokens
2.2. Other tokens
2.3. Identifiers and keywords
2.3.1. Keywords
2.3.2. Reserved classes of identifiers
2.4. Literals
2.4.1. String literals
2.4.2. String literal concatenation
2.4.3. Numeric literals
2.4.4. Integer and long integer literals
2.4.5. Floating point literals
2.4.6. Imaginary literals
2.5. Operators
2.6. Delimiters
3. Data model
3.1. Objects, values and types
3.2. The standard type hierarchy
3.3. New-style and classic classes
3.4. Special method names
3.4.1. Basic customization
3.4.2. Customizing attribute access
3.4.2.1. More attribute access for new-style classes
3.4.2.2. Implementing Descriptors
3.4.2.3. Invoking Descriptors
3.4.2.4. __slots__
3.4.3. Customizing class creation
3.4.4. Emulating callable objects
3.4.5. Emulating container types
3.4.6. Additional methods for emulation of sequence types
3.4.7. Emulating numeric types
3.4.8. Coercion rules
3.4.9. With Statement Context Managers
3.4.10. Special method lookup for old-style classes
3.4.11. Special method lookup for new-style classes
4. Execution model
4.1. Naming and binding
4.1.1. Interaction with dynamic features
4.2. Exceptions
5. Expressions
5.1. Arithmetic conversions
5.2. Atoms
5.2.1. Identifiers (Names)
5.2.2. Literals
5.2.3. Parenthesized forms
5.2.4. List displays
5.2.5. Generator expressions
5.2.6. Dictionary displays
5.2.7. String conversions
5.2.8. Yield expressions
5.3. Primaries
5.3.1. Attribute references
5.3.2. Subscriptions
5.3.3. Slicings
5.3.4. Calls
5.4. The power operator
5.5. Unary arithmetic and bitwise operations
5.6. Binary arithmetic operations
5.7. Shifting operations
5.8. Binary bitwise operations
5.9. Comparisons
5.10. Boolean operations
5.11. Lambdas
5.12. Expression lists
5.13. Evaluation order
5.14. Summary
6. Simple statements
6.1. Expression statements
6.2. Assignment statements
6.2.1. Augmented assignment statements
6.3. The
assert
statement
6.4. The
pass
statement
6.5. The
del
statement
6.6. The
print
statement
6.7. The
return
statement
6.8. The
yield
statement
6.9. The
raise
statement
6.10. The
break
statement
6.11. The
continue
statement
6.12. The
import
statement
6.12.1. Future statements
6.13. The
global
statement
6.14. The
exec
statement
7. Compound statements
7.1. The
if
statement
7.2. The
while
statement
7.3. The
for
statement
7.4. The
try
statement
7.5. The
with
statement
7.6. Function definitions
7.7. Class definitions
8. Top-level components
8.1. Complete Python programs
8.2. File input
8.3. Interactive input
8.4. Expression input
9. Full Grammar specification
The Python Standard Library
1. Introduction
2. Built-in Functions
3. Non-essential Built-in Functions
4. Built-in Constants
4.1. Constants added by the
site
module
5. Built-in Objects
6. Built-in Types
6.1. Truth Value Testing
6.2. Boolean Operations —
and
,
or
,
not
6.3. Comparisons
6.4. Numeric Types —
int
,
float
,
long
,
complex
6.4.1. Bit-string Operations on Integer Types
6.4.2. Additional Methods on Float
6.5. Iterator Types
6.6. Sequence Types —
str
,
unicode
,
list
,
tuple
,
buffer
,
xrange
6.6.1. String Methods
6.6.2. String Formatting Operations
6.6.3. XRange Type
6.6.4. Mutable Sequence Types
6.7. Set Types —
set
,
frozenset
6.8. Mapping Types —
dict
6.9. File Objects
6.10. Context Manager Types
6.11. Other Built-in Types
6.11.1. Modules
6.11.2. Classes and Class Instances
6.11.3. Functions
6.11.4. Methods
6.11.5. Code Objects
6.11.6. Type Objects
6.11.7. The Null Object
6.11.8. The Ellipsis Object
6.11.9. Boolean Values
6.11.10. Internal Objects
6.12. Special Attributes
7. Built-in Exceptions
8. String Services
8.1.
string
— Common string operations
8.1.1. String constants
8.1.2. String Formatting
8.1.3. Format String Syntax
8.1.3.1. Format Specification Mini-Language
8.1.4. Template strings
8.1.5. String functions
8.1.6. Deprecated string functions
8.2.
re
— Regular expression operations
8.2.1. Regular Expression Syntax
8.2.2. Matching vs Searching
8.2.3. Module Contents
8.2.4. Regular Expression Objects
8.2.5. Match Objects
8.2.6. Examples
8.2.6.1. Checking For a Pair
8.2.6.2. Simulating scanf()
8.2.6.3. Avoiding recursion
8.2.6.4. search() vs. match()
8.2.6.5. Making a Phonebook
8.2.6.6. Text Munging
8.2.6.7. Finding all Adverbs
8.2.6.8. Finding all Adverbs and their Positions
8.2.6.9. Raw String Notation
8.3.
struct
— Interpret strings as packed binary data
8.3.1. Struct Objects
8.4.
difflib
— Helpers for computing deltas
8.4.1. SequenceMatcher Objects
8.4.2. SequenceMatcher Examples
8.4.3. Differ Objects
8.4.4. Differ Example
8.4.5. A command-line interface to difflib
8.5.
StringIO
— Read and write strings as files
8.6.
cStringIO
— Faster version of
StringIO
8.7.
textwrap
— Text wrapping and filling
8.8.
codecs
— Codec registry and base classes
8.8.1. Codec Base Classes
8.8.1.1. Codec Objects
8.8.1.2. IncrementalEncoder Objects
8.8.1.3. IncrementalDecoder Objects
8.8.1.4. StreamWriter Objects
8.8.1.5. StreamReader Objects
8.8.1.6. StreamReaderWriter Objects
8.8.1.7. StreamRecoder Objects
8.8.2. Encodings and Unicode
8.8.3. Standard Encodings
8.8.4.
encodings.idna
— Internationalized Domain Names in Applications
8.8.5.
encodings.utf_8_sig
— UTF-8 codec with BOM signature
8.9.
unicodedata
— Unicode Database
8.10.
stringprep
— Internet String Preparation
8.11.
fpformat
— Floating point conversions
9. Data Types
9.1.
datetime
— Basic date and time types
9.1.1. Available Types
9.1.2.
timedelta
Objects
9.1.3.
date
Objects
9.1.4.
datetime
Objects
9.1.5.
time
Objects
9.1.6.
tzinfo
Objects
9.1.7.
strftime()
Behavior
9.2.
calendar
— General calendar-related functions
9.3.
collections
— High-performance container datatypes
9.3.1. ABCs - abstract base classes
9.3.2.
deque
objects
9.3.2.1.
deque
Recipes
9.3.3.
defaultdict
objects
9.3.3.1.
defaultdict
Examples
9.3.4.
namedtuple()
Factory Function for Tuples with Named Fields
9.4.
heapq
— Heap queue algorithm
9.4.1. Theory
9.5.
bisect
— Array bisection algorithm
9.5.1. Examples
9.6.
array
— Efficient arrays of numeric values
9.7.
sets
— Unordered collections of unique elements
9.7.1. Set Objects
9.7.2. Example
9.7.3. Protocol for automatic conversion to immutable
9.7.4. Comparison to the built-in
set
types
9.8.
sched
— Event scheduler
9.8.1. Scheduler Objects
9.9.
mutex
— Mutual exclusion support
9.9.1. Mutex Objects
9.10.
queue
— A synchronized queue class
9.10.1. Queue Objects
9.11.
weakref
— Weak references
9.11.1. Weak Reference Objects
9.11.2. Example
9.12.
UserDict
— Class wrapper for dictionary objects
9.13.
UserList
— Class wrapper for list objects
9.14.
UserString
— Class wrapper for string objects
9.15.
types
— Names for built-in types
9.16.
new
— Creation of runtime internal objects
9.17.
copy
— Shallow and deep copy operations
9.18.
pprint
— Data pretty printer
9.18.1. PrettyPrinter Objects
9.18.2. pprint Example
9.19.
repr
— Alternate
repr()
implementation
9.19.1. Repr Objects
9.19.2. Subclassing Repr Objects
10. Numeric and Mathematical Modules
10.1.
numbers
— Numeric abstract base classes
10.1.1. The numeric tower
10.1.2. Notes for type implementors
10.1.2.1. Adding More Numeric ABCs
10.1.2.2. Implementing the arithmetic operations
10.2.
math
— Mathematical functions
10.2.1. Number-theoretic and representation functions
10.2.2. Power and logarithmic functions
10.2.3. Trigonometric functions
10.2.4. Angular conversion
10.2.5. Hyperbolic functions
10.2.6. Constants
10.3.
cmath
— Mathematical functions for complex numbers
10.3.1. Complex coordinates
10.3.2. cmath functions
10.4.
decimal
— Decimal fixed point and floating point arithmetic
10.4.1. Quick-start Tutorial
10.4.2. Decimal objects
10.4.2.1. Logical operands
10.4.3. Context objects
10.4.4. Signals
10.4.5. Floating Point Notes
10.4.5.1. Mitigating round-off error with increased precision
10.4.5.2. Special values
10.4.6. Working with threads
10.4.7. Recipes
10.4.8. Decimal FAQ
10.5.
fractions
— Rational numbers
10.6.
random
— Generate pseudo-random numbers
10.7.
itertools
— Functions creating iterators for efficient looping
10.7.1. Itertool functions
10.7.2. Examples
10.7.3. Recipes
10.8.
functools
— Higher order functions and operations on callable objects
10.8.1.
partial
Objects
10.9.
operator
— Standard operators as functions
10.9.1. Mapping Operators to Functions
11. File and Directory Access
11.1.
os.path
— Common pathname manipulations
11.2.
fileinput
— Iterate over lines from multiple input streams
11.3.
stat
— Interpreting
stat()
results
11.4.
statvfs
— Constants used with
os.statvfs()
11.5.
filecmp
— File and Directory Comparisons
11.5.1. The
dircmp
class
11.6.
tempfile
— Generate temporary files and directories
11.7.
glob
— Unix style pathname pattern expansion
11.8.
fnmatch
— Unix filename pattern matching
11.9.
linecache
— Random access to text lines
11.10.
shutil
— High-level file operations
11.10.1. Example
11.11.
dircache
— Cached directory listings
11.12.
macpath
— Mac OS 9 path manipulation functions
12. Data Persistence
12.1.
pickle
— Python object serialization
12.1.1. Relationship to other Python modules
12.1.2. Data stream format
12.1.3. Usage
12.1.4. What can be pickled and unpickled?
12.1.5. The pickle protocol
12.1.5.1. Pickling and unpickling normal class instances
12.1.5.2. Pickling and unpickling extension types
12.1.5.3. Pickling and unpickling external objects
12.1.6. Subclassing Unpicklers
12.1.7. Example
12.2.
cPickle
— A faster
pickle
12.3.
copy_reg
— Register
pickle
support functions
12.4.
shelve
— Python object persistence
12.4.1. Restrictions
12.4.2. Example
12.5.
marshal
— Internal Python object serialization
12.6.
anydbm
— Generic access to DBM-style databases
12.7.
whichdb
— Guess which DBM module created a database
12.8.
dbm
— Simple “database” interface
12.9.
gdbm
— GNU’s reinterpretation of dbm
12.10.
dbhash
— DBM-style interface to the BSD database library
12.10.1. Database Objects
12.11.
bsddb
— Interface to Berkeley DB library
12.11.1. Hash, BTree and Record Objects
12.12.
dumbdbm
— Portable DBM implementation
12.12.1. Dumbdbm Objects
12.13.
sqlite3
— DB-API 2.0 interface for SQLite databases
12.13.1. Module functions and constants
12.13.2. Connection Objects
12.13.3. Cursor Objects
12.13.4. Row Objects
12.13.5. SQLite and Python types
12.13.5.1. Introduction
12.13.5.2. Using adapters to store additional Python types in SQLite databases
12.13.5.2.1. Letting your object adapt itself
12.13.5.2.2. Registering an adapter callable
12.13.5.3. Converting SQLite values to custom Python types
12.13.5.4. Default adapters and converters
12.13.6. Controlling Transactions
12.13.7. Using pysqlite efficiently
12.13.7.1. Using shortcut methods
12.13.7.2. Accessing columns by name instead of by index
12.13.7.3. Using the connection as a context manager
13. Data Compression and Archiving
13.1.
zlib
— Compression compatible with
gzip
13.2.
gzip
— Support for
gzip
files
13.2.1. Examples of usage
13.3.
bz2
— Compression compatible with
bzip2
13.3.1. (De)compression of files
13.3.2. Sequential (de)compression
13.3.3. One-shot (de)compression
13.4.
zipfile
— Work with ZIP archives
13.4.1. ZipFile Objects
13.4.2. PyZipFile Objects
13.4.3. ZipInfo Objects
13.5.
tarfile
— Read and write tar archive files
13.5.1. TarFile Objects
13.5.2. TarInfo Objects
13.5.3. Examples
13.5.4. Supported tar formats
13.5.5. Unicode issues
14. File Formats
14.1.
csv
— CSV File Reading and Writing
14.1.1. Module Contents
14.1.2. Dialects and Formatting Parameters
14.1.3. Reader Objects
14.1.4. Writer Objects
14.1.5. Examples
14.2.
ConfigParser
— Configuration file parser
14.2.1. RawConfigParser Objects
14.2.2. ConfigParser Objects
14.2.3. SafeConfigParser Objects
14.2.4. Examples
14.3.
robotparser
— Parser for robots.txt
14.4.
netrc
— netrc file processing
14.4.1. netrc Objects
14.5.
xdrlib
— Encode and decode XDR data
14.5.1. Packer Objects
14.5.2. Unpacker Objects
14.5.3. Exceptions
14.6.
plistlib
— Generate and parse Mac OS X
.plist
files
14.6.1. Examples
15. Cryptographic Services
15.1.
hashlib
— Secure hashes and message digests
15.2.
hmac
— Keyed-Hashing for Message Authentication
15.3.
md5
— MD5 message digest algorithm
15.4.
sha
— SHA-1 message digest algorithm
16. Generic Operating System Services
16.1.
os
— Miscellaneous operating system interfaces
16.1.1. Process Parameters
16.1.2. File Object Creation
16.1.3. File Descriptor Operations
16.1.4. Files and Directories
16.1.5. Process Management
16.1.6. Miscellaneous System Information
16.1.7. Miscellaneous Functions
16.2.
io
— Core tools for working with streams
16.2.1. Module Interface
16.2.2. I/O Base Classes
16.2.3. Raw File I/O
16.2.4. Buffered Streams
16.2.5. Text I/O
16.3.
time
— Time access and conversions
16.4.
optparse
— More powerful command line option parser
16.4.1. Background
16.4.1.1. Terminology
16.4.1.2. What are options for?
16.4.1.3. What are positional arguments for?
16.4.2. Tutorial
16.4.2.1. Understanding option actions
16.4.2.2. The store action
16.4.2.3. Handling boolean (flag) options
16.4.2.4. Other actions
16.4.2.5. Default values
16.4.2.6. Generating help
16.4.2.7. Printing a version string
16.4.2.8. How
optparse
handles errors
16.4.2.9. Putting it all together
16.4.3. Reference Guide
16.4.3.1. Creating the parser
16.4.3.2. Populating the parser
16.4.3.3. Defining options
16.4.3.4. Standard option actions
16.4.3.5. Option attributes
16.4.3.6. Standard option types
16.4.3.7. Parsing arguments
16.4.3.8. Querying and manipulating your option parser
16.4.3.9. Conflicts between options
16.4.3.10. Cleanup
16.4.3.11. Other methods
16.4.4. Option Callbacks
16.4.4.1. Defining a callback option
16.4.4.2. How callbacks are called
16.4.4.3. Raising errors in a callback
16.4.4.4. Callback example 1: trivial callback
16.4.4.5. Callback example 2: check option order
16.4.4.6. Callback example 3: check option order (generalized)
16.4.4.7. Callback example 4: check arbitrary condition
16.4.4.8. Callback example 5: fixed arguments
16.4.4.9. Callback example 6: variable arguments
16.4.5. Extending
optparse
16.4.5.1. Adding new types
16.4.5.2. Adding new actions
16.5.
getopt
— Parser for command line options
16.6.
logging
— Logging facility for Python
16.6.1. Logging tutorial
16.6.1.1. Simple examples
16.6.1.2. Loggers
16.6.1.3. Handlers
16.6.1.4. Formatters
16.6.1.5. Configuring Logging
16.6.1.6. Configuring Logging for a Library
16.6.2. Logging Levels
16.6.3. Logger Objects
16.6.4. Basic example
16.6.5. Logging to multiple destinations
16.6.6. Adding contextual information to your logging output
16.6.7. Sending and receiving logging events across a network
16.6.8. Handler Objects
16.6.8.1. StreamHandler
16.6.8.2. FileHandler
16.6.8.3. WatchedFileHandler
16.6.8.4. RotatingFileHandler
16.6.8.5. TimedRotatingFileHandler
16.6.8.6. SocketHandler
16.6.8.7. DatagramHandler
16.6.8.8. SysLogHandler
16.6.8.9. NTEventLogHandler
16.6.8.10. SMTPHandler
16.6.8.11. MemoryHandler
16.6.8.12. HTTPHandler
16.6.9. Formatter Objects
16.6.10. Filter Objects
16.6.11. LogRecord Objects
16.6.12. LoggerAdapter Objects
16.6.13. Thread Safety
16.6.14. Configuration
16.6.14.1. Configuration functions
16.6.14.2. Configuration file format
16.6.14.3. Configuration server example
16.6.15. More examples
16.6.15.1. Multiple handlers and formatters
16.6.15.2. Using logging in multiple modules
16.7.
getpass
— Portable password input
16.8.
curses
— Terminal handling for character-cell displays
16.8.1. Functions
16.8.2. Window Objects
16.8.3. Constants
16.9.
curses.textpad
— Text input widget for curses programs
16.9.1. Textbox objects
16.10.
curses.wrapper
— Terminal handler for curses programs
16.11.
curses.ascii
— Utilities for ASCII characters
16.12.
curses.panel
— A panel stack extension for curses.
16.12.1. Functions
16.12.2. Panel Objects
16.13.
platform
— Access to underlying platform’s identifying data.
16.13.1. Cross Platform
16.13.2. Java Platform
16.13.3. Windows Platform
16.13.3.1. Win95/98 specific
16.13.4. Mac OS Platform
16.13.5. Unix Platforms
16.14.
errno
— Standard errno system symbols
16.15.
ctypes
— A foreign function library for Python.
16.15.1. ctypes tutorial
16.15.1.1. Loading dynamic link libraries
16.15.1.2. Accessing functions from loaded dlls
16.15.1.3. Calling functions
16.15.1.4. Fundamental data types
16.15.1.5. Calling functions, continued
16.15.1.6. Calling functions with your own custom data types
16.15.1.7. Specifying the required argument types (function prototypes)
16.15.1.8. Return types
16.15.1.9. Passing pointers (or: passing parameters by reference)
16.15.1.10. Structures and unions
16.15.1.11. Structure/union alignment and byte order
16.15.1.12. Bit fields in structures and unions
16.15.1.13. Arrays
16.15.1.14. Pointers
16.15.1.15. Type conversions
16.15.1.16. Incomplete Types
16.15.1.17. Callback functions
16.15.1.18. Accessing values exported from dlls
16.15.1.19. Surprises
16.15.1.20. Variable-sized data types
16.15.2. ctypes reference
16.15.2.1. Finding shared libraries
16.15.2.2. Loading shared libraries
16.15.2.3. Foreign functions
16.15.2.4. Function prototypes
16.15.2.5. Utility functions
16.15.2.6. Data types
16.15.2.7. Fundamental data types
16.15.2.8. Structured data types
16.15.2.9. Arrays and pointers
17. Optional Operating System Services
17.1.
select
— Waiting for I/O completion
17.1.1. Edge and Level Trigger Polling (epoll) Objects
17.1.2. Polling Objects
17.1.3. Kqueue Objects
17.1.4. Kevent Objects
17.2.
threading
— Higher-level threading interface
17.2.1. Thread Objects
17.2.2. Lock Objects
17.2.3. RLock Objects
17.2.4. Condition Objects
17.2.5. Semaphore Objects
17.2.5.1.
Semaphore
Example
17.2.6. Event Objects
17.2.7. Timer Objects
17.2.8. Using locks, conditions, and semaphores in the
with
statement
17.2.9. Importing in threaded code
17.3.
thread
— Multiple threads of control
17.4.
dummy_threading
— Drop-in replacement for the
threading
module
17.5.
dummy_thread
— Drop-in replacement for the
thread
module
17.6.
multiprocessing
— Process-based “threading” interface
17.6.1. Introduction
17.6.1.1. The
Process
class
17.6.1.2. Exchanging objects between processes
17.6.1.3. Synchronization between processes
17.6.1.4. Sharing state between processes
17.6.1.5. Using a pool of workers
17.6.2. Reference
17.6.2.1.
Process
and exceptions
17.6.2.2. Pipes and Queues
17.6.2.3. Miscellaneous
17.6.2.4. Connection Objects
17.6.2.5. Synchronization primitives
17.6.2.6. Shared
ctypes
Objects
17.6.2.6.1. The
multiprocessing.sharedctypes
module
17.6.2.7. Managers
17.6.2.7.1. Namespace objects
17.6.2.7.2. Customized managers
17.6.2.7.3. Using a remote manager
17.6.2.8. Proxy Objects
17.6.2.8.1. Cleanup
17.6.2.9. Process Pools
17.6.2.10. Listeners and Clients
17.6.2.10.1. Address Formats
17.6.2.11. Authentication keys
17.6.2.12. Logging
17.6.2.13. The
multiprocessing.dummy
module
17.6.3. Programming guidelines
17.6.3.1. All platforms
17.6.3.2. Windows
17.6.4. Examples
17.7.
mmap
— Memory-mapped file support
17.8.
readline
— GNU readline interface
17.8.1. Example
17.9.
rlcompleter
— Completion function for GNU readline
17.9.1. Completer Objects
18. Interprocess Communication and Networking
18.1.
subprocess
— Subprocess management
18.1.1. Using the subprocess Module
18.1.1.1. Convenience Functions
18.1.1.2. Exceptions
18.1.1.3. Security
18.1.2. Popen Objects
18.1.3. Replacing Older Functions with the subprocess Module
18.1.3.1. Replacing /bin/sh shell backquote
18.1.3.2. Replacing shell pipeline
18.1.3.3. Replacing os.system()
18.1.3.4. Replacing the os.spawn family
18.1.3.5. Replacing os.popen, os.popen2, os.popen3
18.1.3.6. Replacing functions from the popen2 module
18.2.
socket
— Low-level networking interface
18.2.1. Socket Objects
18.2.2. Example
18.3.
ssl
— SSL wrapper for socket objects
18.3.1. Functions, Constants, and Exceptions
18.3.2. SSLSocket Objects
18.3.3. Certificates
18.3.4. Examples
18.3.4.1. Testing for SSL support
18.3.4.2. Client-side operation
18.3.4.3. Server-side operation
18.4.
signal
— Set handlers for asynchronous events
18.4.1. Example
18.5.
popen2
— Subprocesses with accessible I/O streams
18.5.1. Popen3 and Popen4 Objects
18.5.2. Flow Control Issues
18.6.
asyncore
— Asynchronous socket handler
18.6.1. asyncore Example basic HTTP client
18.7.
asynchat
— Asynchronous socket command/response handler
18.7.1. asynchat - Auxiliary Classes and Functions
18.7.2. asynchat Example
19. Internet Data Handling
19.1.
email
— An email and MIME handling package
19.1.1.
email
: Representing an email message
19.1.2.
email
: Parsing email messages
19.1.2.1. FeedParser API
19.1.2.2. Parser class API
19.1.2.3. Additional notes
19.1.3.
email
: Generating MIME documents
19.1.4.
email
: Creating email and MIME objects from scratch
19.1.5.
email
: Internationalized headers
19.1.6.
email
: Representing character sets
19.1.7.
email
: Encoders
19.1.8.
email
: Exception and Defect classes
19.1.9.
email
: Miscellaneous utilities
19.1.10.
email
: Iterators
19.1.11.
email
: Examples
19.1.12. Package History
19.1.13. Differences from
mimelib
19.2.
json
— JSON encoder and decoder
19.2.1. Basic Usage
19.2.2. Encoders and decoders
19.3.
mailcap
— Mailcap file handling
19.4.
mailbox
— Manipulate mailboxes in various formats
19.4.1.
Mailbox
objects
19.4.1.1.
Maildir
19.4.1.2.
mbox
19.4.1.3.
MH
19.4.1.4.
Babyl
19.4.1.5.
MMDF
19.4.2.
Message
objects
19.4.2.1.
MaildirMessage
19.4.2.2.
mboxMessage
19.4.2.3.
MHMessage
19.4.2.4.
BabylMessage
19.4.2.5.
MMDFMessage
19.4.3. Exceptions
19.4.4. Deprecated classes and methods
19.4.5. Examples
19.5.
mhlib
— Access to MH mailboxes
19.5.1. MH Objects
19.5.2. Folder Objects
19.5.3. Message Objects
19.6.
mimetools
— Tools for parsing MIME messages
19.6.1. Additional Methods of Message Objects
19.7.
mimetypes
— Map filenames to MIME types
19.7.1. MimeTypes Objects
19.8.
MimeWriter
— Generic MIME file writer
19.8.1. MimeWriter Objects
19.9.
mimify
— MIME processing of mail messages
19.10.
multifile
— Support for files containing distinct parts
19.10.1. MultiFile Objects
19.10.2.
MultiFile
Example
19.11.
rfc822
— Parse RFC 2822 mail headers
19.11.1. Message Objects
19.11.2. AddressList Objects
19.12.
base64
— RFC 3548: Base16, Base32, Base64 Data Encodings
19.13.
binhex
— Encode and decode binhex4 files
19.13.1. Notes
19.14.
binascii
— Convert between binary and ASCII
19.15.
quopri
— Encode and decode MIME quoted-printable data
19.16.
uu
— Encode and decode uuencode files
20. Structured Markup Processing Tools
20.1.
HTMLParser
— Simple HTML and XHTML parser
20.1.1. Example HTML Parser Application
20.2.
sgmllib
— Simple SGML parser
20.3.
htmllib
— A parser for HTML documents
20.3.1. HTMLParser Objects
20.4.
htmlentitydefs
— Definitions of HTML general entities
20.5.
xml.parsers.expat
— Fast XML parsing using Expat
20.5.1. XMLParser Objects
20.5.2. ExpatError Exceptions
20.5.3. Example
20.5.4. Content Model Descriptions
20.5.5. Expat error constants
20.6.
xml.dom
— The Document Object Model API
20.6.1. Module Contents
20.6.2. Objects in the DOM
20.6.2.1. DOMImplementation Objects
20.6.2.2. Node Objects
20.6.2.3. NodeList Objects
20.6.2.4. DocumentType Objects
20.6.2.5. Document Objects
20.6.2.6. Element Objects
20.6.2.7. Attr Objects
20.6.2.8. NamedNodeMap Objects
20.6.2.9. Comment Objects
20.6.2.10. Text and CDATASection Objects
20.6.2.11. ProcessingInstruction Objects
20.6.2.12. Exceptions
20.6.3. Conformance
20.6.3.1. Type Mapping
20.6.3.2. Accessor Methods
20.7.
xml.dom.minidom
— Lightweight DOM implementation
20.7.1. DOM Objects
20.7.2. DOM Example
20.7.3. minidom and the DOM standard
20.8.
xml.dom.pulldom
— Support for building partial DOM trees
20.8.1. DOMEventStream Objects
20.9.
xml.sax
— Support for SAX2 parsers
20.9.1. SAXException Objects
20.10.
xml.sax.handler
— Base classes for SAX handlers
20.10.1. ContentHandler Objects
20.10.2. DTDHandler Objects
20.10.3. EntityResolver Objects
20.10.4. ErrorHandler Objects
20.11.
xml.sax.saxutils
— SAX Utilities
20.12.
xml.sax.xmlreader
— Interface for XML parsers
20.12.1. XMLReader Objects
20.12.2. IncrementalParser Objects
20.12.3. Locator Objects
20.12.4. InputSource Objects
20.12.5. The
Attributes
Interface
20.12.6. The
AttributesNS
Interface
20.13.
xml.etree.ElementTree
— The ElementTree XML API
20.13.1. Functions
20.13.2. The Element Interface
20.13.3. ElementTree Objects
20.13.4. QName Objects
20.13.5. TreeBuilder Objects
20.13.6. XMLTreeBuilder Objects
21. Internet Protocols and Support
21.1.
webbrowser
— Convenient Web-browser controller
21.1.1. Browser Controller Objects
21.2.
cgi
— Common Gateway Interface support.
21.2.1. Introduction
21.2.2. Using the cgi module
21.2.3. Higher Level Interface
21.2.4. Old classes
21.2.5. Functions
21.2.6. Caring about security
21.2.7. Installing your CGI script on a Unix system
21.2.8. Testing your CGI script
21.2.9. Debugging CGI scripts
21.2.10. Common problems and solutions
21.3.
cgitb
— Traceback manager for CGI scripts
21.4.
wsgiref
— WSGI Utilities and Reference Implementation
21.4.1.
wsgiref.util
– WSGI environment utilities
21.4.2.
wsgiref.headers
– WSGI response header tools
21.4.3.
wsgiref.simple_server
– a simple WSGI HTTP server
21.4.4.
wsgiref.validate
— WSGI conformance checker
21.4.5.
wsgiref.handlers
– server/gateway base classes
21.4.6. Examples
21.5.
urllib
— Open arbitrary resources by URL
21.5.1. High-level interface
21.5.2. Utility functions
21.5.3. URL Opener objects
21.5.4.
urllib
Restrictions
21.5.5. Examples
21.6.
urllib2
— extensible library for opening URLs
21.6.1. Request Objects
21.6.2. OpenerDirector Objects
21.6.3. BaseHandler Objects
21.6.4. HTTPRedirectHandler Objects
21.6.5. HTTPCookieProcessor Objects
21.6.6. ProxyHandler Objects
21.6.7. HTTPPasswordMgr Objects
21.6.8. AbstractBasicAuthHandler Objects
21.6.9. HTTPBasicAuthHandler Objects
21.6.10. ProxyBasicAuthHandler Objects
21.6.11. AbstractDigestAuthHandler Objects
21.6.12. HTTPDigestAuthHandler Objects
21.6.13. ProxyDigestAuthHandler Objects
21.6.14. HTTPHandler Objects
21.6.15. HTTPSHandler Objects
21.6.16. FileHandler Objects
21.6.17. FTPHandler Objects
21.6.18. CacheFTPHandler Objects
21.6.19. UnknownHandler Objects
21.6.20. HTTPErrorProcessor Objects
21.6.21. Examples
21.7.
httplib
— HTTP protocol client
21.7.1. HTTPConnection Objects
21.7.2. HTTPResponse Objects
21.7.3. Examples
21.8.
ftplib
— FTP protocol client
21.8.1. FTP Objects
21.9.
poplib
— POP3 protocol client
21.9.1. POP3 Objects
21.9.2. POP3 Example
21.10.
imaplib
— IMAP4 protocol client
21.10.1. IMAP4 Objects
21.10.2. IMAP4 Example
21.11.
nntplib
— NNTP protocol client
21.11.1. NNTP Objects
21.12.
smtplib
— SMTP protocol client
21.12.1. SMTP Objects
21.12.2. SMTP Example
21.13.
smtpd
— SMTP Server
21.13.1. SMTPServer Objects
21.13.2. DebuggingServer Objects
21.13.3. PureProxy Objects
21.13.4. MailmanProxy Objects
21.14.
telnetlib
— Telnet client
21.14.1. Telnet Objects
21.14.2. Telnet Example
21.15.
uuid
— UUID objects according to RFC 4122
21.15.1. Example
21.16.
urlparse
— Parse URLs into components
21.16.1. Results of
urlparse()
and
urlsplit()
21.17.
SocketServer
— A framework for network servers
21.17.1. Server Creation Notes
21.17.2. Server Objects
21.17.3. RequestHandler Objects
21.17.4. Examples
21.17.4.1.
SocketServer.TCPServer
Example
21.17.4.2.
SocketServer.UDPServer
Example
21.17.4.3. Asynchronous Mixins
21.18.
BaseHTTPServer
— Basic HTTP server
21.18.1. More examples
21.19.
SimpleHTTPServer
— Simple HTTP request handler
21.20.
CGIHTTPServer
— CGI-capable HTTP request handler
21.21.
cookielib
— Cookie handling for HTTP clients
21.21.1. CookieJar and FileCookieJar Objects
21.21.2. FileCookieJar subclasses and co-operation with web browsers
21.21.3. CookiePolicy Objects
21.21.4. DefaultCookiePolicy Objects
21.21.5. Cookie Objects
21.21.6. Examples
21.22.
Cookie
— HTTP state management
21.22.1. Cookie Objects
21.22.2. Morsel Objects
21.22.3. Example
21.23.
xmlrpclib
— XML-RPC client access
21.23.1. ServerProxy Objects
21.23.2. Boolean Objects
21.23.3. DateTime Objects
21.23.4. Binary Objects
21.23.5. Fault Objects
21.23.6. ProtocolError Objects
21.23.7. MultiCall Objects
21.23.8. Convenience Functions
21.23.9. Example of Client Usage
21.23.10. Example of Client and Server Usage
21.24.
SimpleXMLRPCServer
— Basic XML-RPC server
21.24.1. SimpleXMLRPCServer Objects
21.24.1.1. SimpleXMLRPCServer Example
21.24.2. CGIXMLRPCRequestHandler
21.25.
DocXMLRPCServer
— Self-documenting XML-RPC server
21.25.1. DocXMLRPCServer Objects
21.25.2. DocCGIXMLRPCRequestHandler
22. Multimedia Services
22.1.
audioop
— Manipulate raw audio data
22.2.
imageop
— Manipulate raw image data
22.3.
aifc
— Read and write AIFF and AIFC files
22.4.
sunau
— Read and write Sun AU files
22.4.1. AU_read Objects
22.4.2. AU_write Objects
22.5.
wave
— Read and write WAV files
22.5.1. Wave_read Objects
22.5.2. Wave_write Objects
22.6.
chunk
— Read IFF chunked data
22.7.
colorsys
— Conversions between color systems
22.8.
imghdr
— Determine the type of an image
22.9.
sndhdr
— Determine type of sound file
22.10.
ossaudiodev
— Access to OSS-compatible audio devices
22.10.1. Audio Device Objects
22.10.2. Mixer Device Objects
23. Internationalization
23.1.
gettext
— Multilingual internationalization services
23.1.1. GNU
gettext
API
23.1.2. Class-based API
23.1.2.1. The
NullTranslations
class
23.1.2.2. The
GNUTranslations
class
23.1.2.3. Solaris message catalog support
23.1.2.4. The Catalog constructor
23.1.3. Internationalizing your programs and modules
23.1.3.1. Localizing your module
23.1.3.2. Localizing your application
23.1.3.3. Changing languages on the fly
23.1.3.4. Deferred translations
23.1.3.5.
gettext()
vs.
lgettext()
23.1.4. Acknowledgements
23.2.
locale
— Internationalization services
23.2.1. Background, details, hints, tips and caveats
23.2.2. For extension writers and programs that embed Python
23.2.3. Access to message catalogs
24. Program Frameworks
24.1.
cmd
— Support for line-oriented command interpreters
24.1.1. Cmd Objects
24.2.
shlex
— Simple lexical analysis
24.2.1. shlex Objects
24.2.2. Parsing Rules
25. Graphical User Interfaces with Tk
25.1.
Tkinter
— Python interface to Tcl/Tk
25.1.1. Tkinter Modules
25.1.2. Tkinter Life Preserver
25.1.2.1. How To Use This Section
25.1.2.2. A Simple Hello World Program
25.1.3. A (Very) Quick Look at Tcl/Tk
25.1.4. Mapping Basic Tk into Tkinter
25.1.5. How Tk and Tkinter are Related
25.1.6. Handy Reference
25.1.6.1. Setting Options
25.1.6.2. The Packer
25.1.6.3. Packer Options
25.1.6.4. Coupling Widget Variables
25.1.6.5. The Window Manager
25.1.6.6. Tk Option Data Types
25.1.6.7. Bindings and Events
25.1.6.8. The index Parameter
25.1.6.9. Images
25.2.
Tix
— Extension widgets for Tk
25.2.1. Using Tix
25.2.2. Tix Widgets
25.2.2.1. Basic Widgets
25.2.2.2. File Selectors
25.2.2.3. Hierarchical ListBox
25.2.2.4. Tabular ListBox
25.2.2.5. Manager Widgets
25.2.2.6. Image Types
25.2.2.7. Miscellaneous Widgets
25.2.2.8. Form Geometry Manager
25.2.3. Tix Commands
25.3.
ScrolledText
— Scrolled Text Widget
25.4.
turtle
— Turtle graphics for Tk
25.4.1. Introduction
25.4.2. Overview over available Turtle and Screen methods
25.4.2.1. Turtle methods
25.4.2.2. Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen
25.4.3. Methods of RawTurtle/Turtle and corresponding functions
25.4.3.1. Turtle motion
25.4.3.2. Tell Turtle’s state
25.4.3.3. Settings for measurement
25.4.3.4. Pen control
25.4.3.4.1. Drawing state
25.4.3.4.2. Color control
25.4.3.4.3. Filling
25.4.3.4.4. More drawing control
25.4.3.5. Turtle state
25.4.3.5.1. Visibility
25.4.3.5.2. Appearance
25.4.3.6. Using events
25.4.3.7. Special Turtle methods
25.4.3.8. Excursus about the use of compound shapes
25.4.4. Methods of TurtleScreen/Screen and corresponding functions
25.4.4.1. Window control
25.4.4.2. Animation control
25.4.4.3. Using screen events
25.4.4.4. Settings and special methods
25.4.4.5. Methods specific to Screen, not inherited from TurtleScreen
25.4.5. The public classes of the module
turtle
25.4.6. Help and configuration
25.4.6.1. How to use help
25.4.6.2. Translation of docstrings into different languages
25.4.6.3. How to configure Screen and Turtles
25.4.7. Demo scripts
25.5. IDLE
25.5.1. Menus
25.5.1.1. File menu
25.5.1.2. Edit menu
25.5.1.3. Windows menu
25.5.1.4. Debug menu (in the Python Shell window only)
25.5.2. Basic editing and navigation
25.5.2.1. Automatic indentation
25.5.2.2. Python Shell window
25.5.3. Syntax colors
25.5.4. Startup
25.5.4.1. Command line usage
25.6. Other Graphical User Interface Packages
26. Development Tools
26.1.
pydoc
— Documentation generator and online help system
26.2.
doctest
— Test interactive Python examples
26.2.1. Simple Usage: Checking Examples in Docstrings
26.2.2. Simple Usage: Checking Examples in a Text File
26.2.3. How It Works
26.2.3.1. Which Docstrings Are Examined?
26.2.3.2. How are Docstring Examples Recognized?
26.2.3.3. What’s the Execution Context?
26.2.3.4. What About Exceptions?
26.2.3.5. Option Flags and Directives
26.2.3.6. Warnings
26.2.4. Basic API
26.2.5. Unittest API
26.2.6. Advanced API
26.2.6.1. DocTest Objects
26.2.6.2. Example Objects
26.2.6.3. DocTestFinder objects
26.2.6.4. DocTestParser objects
26.2.6.5. DocTestRunner objects
26.2.6.6. OutputChecker objects
26.2.7. Debugging
26.2.8. Soapbox
26.3.
unittest
— Unit testing framework
26.3.1. Basic example
26.3.2. Organizing test code
26.3.3. Re-using old test code
26.3.4. Classes and functions
26.3.5. TestCase Objects
26.3.6. TestSuite Objects
26.3.7. TestResult Objects
26.3.8. TestLoader Objects
26.4. 2to3 - Automated Python 2 to 3 code translation
26.4.1. Using 2to3
26.4.2.
lib2to3
- 2to3’s library
26.5.
test
— Regression tests package for Python
26.5.1. Writing Unit Tests for the
test
package
26.5.2. Running tests using
test.regrtest
26.6.
test.test_support
— Utility functions for tests
27. Debugging and Profiling
27.1.
bdb
— Debugger framework
27.2.
pdb
— The Python Debugger
27.3. Debugger Commands
27.4. The Python Profilers
27.4.1. Introduction to the profilers
27.4.2. Instant User’s Manual
27.4.3. What Is Deterministic Profiling?
27.4.4. Reference Manual –
profile
and
cProfile
27.4.4.1. The
Stats
Class
27.4.5. Limitations
27.4.6. Calibration
27.4.7. Extensions — Deriving Better Profilers
27.5.
hotshot
— High performance logging profiler
27.5.1. Profile Objects
27.5.2. Using hotshot data
27.5.3. Example Usage
27.6.
timeit
— Measure execution time of small code snippets
27.6.1. Command Line Interface
27.6.2. Examples
27.7.
trace
— Trace or track Python statement execution
27.7.1. Command Line Usage
27.7.2. Programming Interface
28. Python Runtime Services
28.1.
sys
— System-specific parameters and functions
28.2.
__builtin__
— Built-in objects
28.3.
future_builtins
— Python 3 builtins
28.4.
__main__
— Top-level script environment
28.5.
warnings
— Warning control
28.5.1. Warning Categories
28.5.2. The Warnings Filter
28.5.3. Temporarily Suppressing Warnings
28.5.4. Testing Warnings
28.5.5. Available Functions
28.5.6. Available Context Managers
28.6.
contextlib
— Utilities for
with
-statement contexts.
28.7.
abc
— Abstract Base Classes
28.8.
atexit
— Exit handlers
28.8.1.
atexit
Example
28.9.
traceback
— Print or retrieve a stack traceback
28.9.1. Traceback Examples
28.10.
__future__
— Future statement definitions
28.11.
gc
— Garbage Collector interface
28.12.
inspect
— Inspect live objects
28.12.1. Types and members
28.12.2. Retrieving source code
28.12.3. Classes and functions
28.12.4. The interpreter stack
28.13.
site
— Site-specific configuration hook
28.14.
user
— User-specific configuration hook
28.15.
fpectl
— Floating point exception control
28.15.1. Example
28.15.2. Limitations and other considerations
29. Custom Python Interpreters
29.1.
code
— Interpreter base classes
29.1.1. Interactive Interpreter Objects
29.1.2. Interactive Console Objects
29.2.
codeop
— Compile Python code
30. Restricted Execution
30.1.
rexec
— Restricted execution framework
30.1.1. RExec Objects
30.1.2. Defining restricted environments
30.1.3. An example
30.2.
Bastion
— Restricting access to objects
31. Importing Modules
31.1.
imp
— Access the
import
internals
31.1.1. Examples
31.2.
imputil
— Import utilities
31.2.1. Examples
31.3.
zipimport
— Import modules from Zip archives
31.3.1. zipimporter Objects
31.3.2. Examples
31.4.
pkgutil
— Package extension utility
31.5.
modulefinder
— Find modules used by a script
31.5.1. Example usage of
ModuleFinder
31.6.
runpy
— Locating and executing Python modules
32. Python Language Services
32.1.
parser
— Access Python parse trees
32.1.1. Creating ST Objects
32.1.2. Converting ST Objects
32.1.3. Queries on ST Objects
32.1.4. Exceptions and Error Handling
32.1.5. ST Objects
32.1.6. Examples
32.1.6.1. Emulation of
compile()
32.1.6.2. Information Discovery
32.2. Abstract Syntax Trees
32.2.1. Node classes
32.2.2. Abstract Grammar
32.2.3.
ast
Helpers
32.3.
symtable
— Access to the compiler’s symbol tables
32.3.1. Generating Symbol Tables
32.3.2. Examining Symbol Tables
32.4.
symbol
— Constants used with Python parse trees
32.5.
token
— Constants used with Python parse trees
32.6.
keyword
— Testing for Python keywords
32.7.
tokenize
— Tokenizer for Python source
32.8.
tabnanny
— Detection of ambiguous indentation
32.9.
pyclbr
— Python class browser support
32.9.1. Class Objects
32.9.2. Function Objects
32.10.
py_compile
— Compile Python source files
32.11.
compileall
— Byte-compile Python libraries
32.12.
dis
— Disassembler for Python bytecode
32.12.1. Python Bytecode Instructions
32.13.
pickletools
— Tools for pickle developers.
32.14.
distutils
— Building and installing Python modules
33. Python compiler package
33.1. The basic interface
33.2. Limitations
33.3. Python Abstract Syntax
33.3.1. AST Nodes
33.3.2. Assignment nodes
33.3.3. Examples
33.4. Using Visitors to Walk ASTs
33.5. Bytecode Generation
34. Miscellaneous Services
34.1.
formatter
— Generic output formatting
34.1.1. The Formatter Interface
34.1.2. Formatter Implementations
34.1.3. The Writer Interface
34.1.4. Writer Implementations
35. MS Windows Specific Services
35.1.
msilib
— Read and write Microsoft Installer files
35.1.1. Database Objects
35.1.2. View Objects
35.1.3. Summary Information Objects
35.1.4. Record Objects
35.1.5. Errors
35.1.6. CAB Objects
35.1.7. Directory Objects
35.1.8. Features
35.1.9. GUI classes
35.1.10. Precomputed tables
35.2.
msvcrt
– Useful routines from the MS VC++ runtime
35.2.1. File Operations
35.2.2. Console I/O
35.2.3. Other Functions
35.3.
_winreg
– Windows registry access
35.3.1. Registry Handle Objects
35.4.
winsound
— Sound-playing interface for Windows
36. Unix Specific Services
36.1.
posix
— The most common POSIX system calls
36.1.1. Large File Support
36.1.2. Notable Module Contents
36.2.
pwd
— The password database
36.3.
spwd
— The shadow password database
36.4.
grp
— The group database
36.5.
crypt
— Function to check Unix passwords
36.6.
dl
— Call C functions in shared objects
36.6.1. Dl Objects
36.7.
termios
— POSIX style tty control
36.7.1. Example
36.8.
tty
— Terminal control functions
36.9.
pty
— Pseudo-terminal utilities
36.10.
fcntl
— The
fcntl()
and
ioctl()
system calls
36.11.
pipes
— Interface to shell pipelines
36.11.1. Template Objects
36.12.
posixfile
— File-like objects with locking support
36.13.
resource
— Resource usage information
36.13.1. Resource Limits
36.13.2. Resource Usage
36.14.
nis
— Interface to Sun’s NIS (Yellow Pages)
36.15.
syslog
— Unix syslog library routines
36.16.
commands
— Utilities for running commands
37. Mac OS X specific services
37.1.
ic
— Access to the Mac OS X Internet Config
37.1.1. IC Objects
37.2.
MacOS
— Access to Mac OS interpreter features
37.3.
macostools
— Convenience routines for file manipulation
37.4.
findertools
— The
finder
‘s Apple Events interface
37.5.
EasyDialogs
— Basic Macintosh dialogs
37.5.1. ProgressBar Objects
37.6.
FrameWork
— Interactive application framework
37.6.1. Application Objects
37.6.2. Window Objects
37.6.3. ControlsWindow Object
37.6.4. ScrolledWindow Object
37.6.5. DialogWindow Objects
37.7.
autoGIL
— Global Interpreter Lock handling in event loops
37.8. Mac OS Toolbox Modules
37.8.1.
Carbon.AE
— Apple Events
37.8.2.
Carbon.AH
— Apple Help
37.8.3.
Carbon.App
— Appearance Manager
37.8.4.
Carbon.Appearance
— Appearance Manager constants
37.8.5.
Carbon.CF
— Core Foundation
37.8.6.
Carbon.CG
— Core Graphics
37.8.7.
Carbon.CarbonEvt
— Carbon Event Manager
37.8.8.
Carbon.CarbonEvents
— Carbon Event Manager constants
37.8.9.
Carbon.Cm
— Component Manager
37.8.10.
Carbon.Components
— Component Manager constants
37.8.11.
Carbon.ControlAccessor
— Control Manager accssors
37.8.12.
Carbon.Controls
— Control Manager constants
37.8.13.
Carbon.CoreFounation
— CoreFounation constants
37.8.14.
Carbon.CoreGraphics
— CoreGraphics constants
37.8.15.
Carbon.Ctl
— Control Manager
37.8.16.
Carbon.Dialogs
— Dialog Manager constants
37.8.17.
Carbon.Dlg
— Dialog Manager
37.8.18.
Carbon.Drag
— Drag and Drop Manager
37.8.19.
Carbon.Dragconst
— Drag and Drop Manager constants
37.8.20.
Carbon.Events
— Event Manager constants
37.8.21.
Carbon.Evt
— Event Manager
37.8.22.
Carbon.File
— File Manager
37.8.23.
Carbon.Files
— File Manager constants
37.8.24.
Carbon.Fm
— Font Manager
37.8.25.
Carbon.Folder
— Folder Manager
37.8.26.
Carbon.Folders
— Folder Manager constants
37.8.27.
Carbon.Fonts
— Font Manager constants
37.8.28.
Carbon.Help
— Help Manager
37.8.29.
Carbon.IBCarbon
— Carbon InterfaceBuilder
37.8.30.
Carbon.IBCarbonRuntime
— Carbon InterfaceBuilder constants
37.8.31.
Carbon.Icn
— Carbon Icon Manager
37.8.32.
Carbon.Icons
— Carbon Icon Manager constants
37.8.33.
Carbon.Launch
— Carbon Launch Services
37.8.34.
Carbon.LaunchServices
— Carbon Launch Services constants
37.8.35.
Carbon.List
— List Manager
37.8.36.
Carbon.Lists
— List Manager constants
37.8.37.
Carbon.MacHelp
— Help Manager constants
37.8.38.
Carbon.MediaDescr
— Parsers and generators for Quicktime Media descriptors
37.8.39.
Carbon.Menu
— Menu Manager
37.8.40.
Carbon.Menus
— Menu Manager constants
37.8.41.
Carbon.Mlte
— MultiLingual Text Editor
37.8.42.
Carbon.OSA
— Carbon OSA Interface
37.8.43.
Carbon.OSAconst
— Carbon OSA Interface constants
37.8.44.
Carbon.QDOffscreen
— QuickDraw Offscreen constants
37.8.45.
Carbon.Qd
— QuickDraw
37.8.46.
Carbon.Qdoffs
— QuickDraw Offscreen
37.8.47.
Carbon.Qt
— QuickTime
37.8.48.
Carbon.QuickDraw
— QuickDraw constants
37.8.49.
Carbon.QuickTime
— QuickTime constants
37.8.50.
Carbon.Res
— Resource Manager and Handles
37.8.51.
Carbon.Resources
— Resource Manager and Handles constants
37.8.52.
Carbon.Scrap
— Scrap Manager
37.8.53.
Carbon.Snd
— Sound Manager
37.8.54.
Carbon.Sound
— Sound Manager constants
37.8.55.
Carbon.TE
— TextEdit
37.8.56.
Carbon.TextEdit
— TextEdit constants
37.8.57.
Carbon.Win
— Window Manager
37.8.58.
Carbon.Windows
— Window Manager constants
37.9.
ColorPicker
— Color selection dialog
38. MacPython OSA Modules
38.1.
gensuitemodule
— Generate OSA stub packages
38.2.
aetools
— OSA client support
38.3.
aepack
— Conversion between Python variables and AppleEvent data containers
38.4.
aetypes
— AppleEvent objects
38.5.
MiniAEFrame
— Open Scripting Architecture server support
38.5.1. AEServer Objects
39. SGI IRIX Specific Services
39.1.
al
— Audio functions on the SGI
39.1.1. Configuration Objects
39.1.2. Port Objects
39.2.
AL
— Constants used with the
al
module
39.3.
cd
— CD-ROM access on SGI systems
39.3.1. Player Objects
39.3.2. Parser Objects
39.4.
fl
— FORMS library for graphical user interfaces
39.4.1. Functions Defined in Module
fl
39.4.2. Form Objects
39.4.3. FORMS Objects
39.5.
FL
— Constants used with the
fl
module
39.6.
flp
— Functions for loading stored FORMS designs
39.7.
fm
—
Font Manager
interface
39.8.
gl
—
Graphics Library
interface
39.9.
DEVICE
— Constants used with the
gl
module
39.10.
GL
— Constants used with the
gl
module
39.11.
imgfile
— Support for SGI imglib files
39.12.
jpeg
— Read and write JPEG files
40. SunOS Specific Services
40.1.
sunaudiodev
— Access to Sun audio hardware
40.1.1. Audio Device Objects
40.2.
SUNAUDIODEV
— Constants used with
sunaudiodev
41. Undocumented Modules
41.1. Miscellaneous useful utilities
41.2. Platform specific modules
41.3. Multimedia
41.4. Undocumented Mac OS modules
41.4.1.
applesingle
— AppleSingle decoder
41.4.2.
buildtools
— Helper module for BuildApplet and Friends
41.4.3.
cfmfile
— Code Fragment Resource module
41.4.4.
icopen
— Internet Config replacement for
open()
41.4.5.
macerrors
— Mac OS Errors
41.4.6.
macresource
— Locate script resources
41.4.7.
Nav
— NavServices calls
41.4.8.
PixMapWrapper
— Wrapper for PixMap objects
41.4.9.
videoreader
— Read QuickTime movies
41.4.10.
W
— Widgets built on
FrameWork
41.5. Obsolete
41.6. SGI-specific Extension modules
Extending and Embedding the Python Interpreter
1. Extending Python with C or C++
1.1. A Simple Example
1.2. Intermezzo: Errors and Exceptions
1.3. Back to the Example
1.4. The Module’s Method Table and Initialization Function
1.5. Compilation and Linkage
1.6. Calling Python Functions from C
1.7. Extracting Parameters in Extension Functions
1.8. Keyword Parameters for Extension Functions
1.9. Building Arbitrary Values
1.10. Reference Counts
1.10.1. Reference Counting in Python
1.10.2. Ownership Rules
1.10.3. Thin Ice
1.10.4. NULL Pointers
1.11. Writing Extensions in C++
1.12. Providing a C API for an Extension Module
2. Defining New Types
2.1. The Basics
2.1.1. Adding data and methods to the Basic example
2.1.2. Providing finer control over data attributes
2.1.3. Supporting cyclic garbage collection
2.1.4. Subclassing other types
2.2. Type Methods
2.2.1. Finalization and De-allocation
2.2.2. Object Presentation
2.2.3. Attribute Management
2.2.3.1. Generic Attribute Management
2.2.3.2. Type-specific Attribute Management
2.2.4. Object Comparison
2.2.5. Abstract Protocol Support
2.2.6. Weak Reference Support
2.2.7. More Suggestions
3. Building C and C++ Extensions with distutils
3.1. Distributing your extension modules
4. Building C and C++ Extensions on Windows
4.1. A Cookbook Approach
4.2. Differences Between Unix and Windows
4.3. Using DLLs in Practice
5. Embedding Python in Another Application
5.1. Very High Level Embedding
5.2. Beyond Very High Level Embedding: An overview
5.3. Pure Embedding
5.4. Extending Embedded Python
5.5. Embedding Python in C++
5.6. Linking Requirements
Python/C API Reference Manual
Introduction
Include Files
Objects, Types and Reference Counts
Reference Counts
Reference Count Details
Types
Exceptions
Embedding Python
Debugging Builds
The Very High Level Layer
Reference Counting
Exception Handling
Standard Exceptions
Deprecation of String Exceptions
Utilities
Operating System Utilities
System Functions
Process Control
Importing Modules
Data marshalling support
Parsing arguments and building values
String conversion and formatting
Reflection
Abstract Objects Layer
Object Protocol
Number Protocol
Sequence Protocol
Mapping Protocol
Iterator Protocol
Old Buffer Protocol
Concrete Objects Layer
Fundamental Objects
Type Objects
The None Object
Numeric Objects
Plain Integer Objects
Boolean Objects
Long Integer Objects
Floating Point Objects
Complex Number Objects
Complex Numbers as C Structures
Complex Numbers as Python Objects
Sequence Objects
Byte Array Objects
String/Bytes Objects
Unicode Objects and Codecs
Unicode Objects
Built-in Codecs
Methods and Slot Functions
Buffer Objects
The new-style Py_buffer struct
Buffer related functions
Old-style buffer objects
Tuple Objects
List Objects
Mapping Objects
Dictionary Objects
Other Objects
Class and Instance Objects
Function Objects
Method Objects
File Objects
Module Objects
Iterator Objects
Descriptor Objects
Slice Objects
Weak Reference Objects
CObjects
Cell Objects
Generator Objects
DateTime Objects
Set Objects
Initialization, Finalization, and Threads
Thread State and the Global Interpreter Lock
Profiling and Tracing
Advanced Debugger Support
Memory Management
Overview
Memory Interface
Examples
Object Implementation Support
Allocating Objects on the Heap
Common Object Structures
Type Objects
Number Object Structures
Mapping Object Structures
Sequence Object Structures
Buffer Object Structures
Supporting Cyclic Garbage Collection
Distributing Python Modules
1. An Introduction to Distutils
1.1. Concepts & Terminology
1.2. A Simple Example
1.3. General Python terminology
1.4. Distutils-specific terminology
2. Writing the Setup Script
2.1. Listing whole packages
2.2. Listing individual modules
2.3. Describing extension modules
2.3.1. Extension names and packages
2.3.2. Extension source files
2.3.3. Preprocessor options
2.3.4. Library options
2.3.5. Other options
2.4. Relationships between Distributions and Packages
2.5. Installing Scripts
2.6. Installing Package Data
2.7. Installing Additional Files
2.8. Additional meta-data
2.9. Debugging the setup script
3. Writing the Setup Configuration File
4. Creating a Source Distribution
4.1. Specifying the files to distribute
4.2. Manifest-related options
5. Creating Built Distributions
5.1. Creating dumb built distributions
5.2. Creating RPM packages
5.3. Creating Windows Installers
5.4. Cross-compiling on Windows
5.4.1. The Postinstallation script
5.5. Vista User Access Control (UAC)
6. Registering with the Package Index
6.1. The .pypirc file
7. Uploading Packages to the Package Index
8. Examples
8.1. Pure Python distribution (by module)
8.2. Pure Python distribution (by package)
8.3. Single extension module
9. Extending Distutils
9.1. Integrating new commands
9.2. Adding new distribution types
10. Command Reference
10.1. Installing modules: the
install
command family
10.1.1.
install_data
10.1.2.
install_scripts
10.2. Creating a source distribution: the
sdist
command
11. API Reference
11.1.
distutils.core
— Core Distutils functionality
11.2.
distutils.ccompiler
— CCompiler base class
11.3.
distutils.unixccompiler
— Unix C Compiler
11.4.
distutils.msvccompiler
— Microsoft Compiler
11.5.
distutils.bcppcompiler
— Borland Compiler
11.6.
distutils.cygwincompiler
— Cygwin Compiler
11.7.
distutils.emxccompiler
— OS/2 EMX Compiler
11.8.
distutils.mwerkscompiler
— Metrowerks CodeWarrior support
11.9.
distutils.archive_util
— Archiving utilities
11.10.
distutils.dep_util
— Dependency checking
11.11.
distutils.dir_util
— Directory tree operations
11.12.
distutils.file_util
— Single file operations
11.13.
distutils.util
— Miscellaneous other utility functions
11.14.
distutils.dist
— The Distribution class
11.15.
distutils.extension
— The Extension class
11.16.
distutils.debug
— Distutils debug mode
11.17.
distutils.errors
— Distutils exceptions
11.18.
distutils.fancy_getopt
— Wrapper around the standard getopt module
11.19.
distutils.filelist
— The FileList class
11.20.
distutils.log
— Simple PEP 282-style logging
11.21.
distutils.spawn
— Spawn a sub-process
11.22.
distutils.sysconfig
— System configuration information
11.23.
distutils.text_file
— The TextFile class
11.24.
distutils.version
— Version number classes
11.25.
distutils.cmd
— Abstract base class for Distutils commands
11.26.
distutils.command
— Individual Distutils commands
11.27.
distutils.command.bdist
— Build a binary installer
11.28.
distutils.command.bdist_packager
— Abstract base class for packagers
11.29.
distutils.command.bdist_dumb
— Build a “dumb” installer
11.30.
distutils.command.bdist_msi
— Build a Microsoft Installer binary package
11.31.
distutils.command.bdist_rpm
— Build a binary distribution as a Redhat RPM and SRPM
11.32.
distutils.command.bdist_wininst
— Build a Windows installer
11.33.
distutils.command.sdist
— Build a source distribution
11.34.
distutils.command.build
— Build all files of a package
11.35.
distutils.command.build_clib
— Build any C libraries in a package
11.36.
distutils.command.build_ext
— Build any extensions in a package
11.37.
distutils.command.build_py
— Build the .py/.pyc files of a package
11.38.
distutils.command.build_scripts
— Build the scripts of a package
11.39.
distutils.command.clean
— Clean a package build area
11.40.
distutils.command.config
— Perform package configuration
11.41.
distutils.command.install
— Install a package
11.42.
distutils.command.install_data
— Install data files from a package
11.43.
distutils.command.install_headers
— Install C/C++ header files from a package
11.44.
distutils.command.install_lib
— Install library files from a package
11.45.
distutils.command.install_scripts
— Install script files from a package
11.46.
distutils.command.register
— Register a module with the Python Package Index
11.47. Creating a new Distutils command
Installing Python Modules
Introduction
Best case: trivial installation
The new standard: Distutils
Standard Build and Install
Platform variations
Splitting the job up
How building works
How installation works
Alternate Installation
Alternate installation: the home scheme
Alternate installation: Unix (the prefix scheme)
Alternate installation: Windows (the prefix scheme)
Custom Installation
Modifying Python’s Search Path
Distutils Configuration Files
Location and names of config files
Syntax of config files
Building Extensions: Tips and Tricks
Tweaking compiler/linker flags
Using non-Microsoft compilers on Windows
Borland/CodeGear C++
GNU C / Cygwin / MinGW
Documenting Python
1. Introduction
2. Style Guide
3. reStructuredText Primer
3.1. Paragraphs
3.2. Inline markup
3.3. Lists and Quotes
3.4. Source Code
3.5. Hyperlinks
3.5.1. External links
3.5.2. Internal links
3.6. Sections
3.7. Explicit Markup
3.8. Directives
3.9. Footnotes
3.10. Comments
3.11. Source encoding
3.12. Gotchas
4. Additional Markup Constructs
4.1. Meta-information markup
4.2. Module-specific markup
4.3. Information units
4.4. Showing code examples
4.5. Inline markup
4.6. Cross-linking markup
4.7. Paragraph-level markup
4.8. Table-of-contents markup
4.9. Index-generating markup
4.10. Grammar production displays
4.11. Substitutions
5. Differences to the LaTeX markup
5.1. Inline markup
5.2. Information units
5.3. Structure
Python HOWTOs
Python Advocacy HOWTO
Reasons to Use Python
Programmability
Prototyping
Simplicity and Ease of Understanding
Java Integration
Arguments and Rebuttals
Useful Resources
Porting Extension Modules to 3.0
Conditional compilation
Changes to Object APIs
str/unicode Unification
long/int Unification
Module initialization and state
Other options
Curses Programming with Python
What is curses?
The Python curses module
Starting and ending a curses application
Windows and Pads
Displaying Text
Attributes and Color
User Input
For More Information
Idioms and Anti-Idioms in Python
Language Constructs You Should Not Use
from module import *
Inside Function Definitions
At Module Level
When It Is Just Fine
Unadorned
exec
,
execfile()
and friends
from module import name1, name2
except:
Exceptions
Using the Batteries
Using Backslash to Continue Statements
Functional Programming HOWTO
Introduction
Formal provability
Modularity
Ease of debugging and testing
Composability
Iterators
Data Types That Support Iterators
Generator expressions and list comprehensions
Generators
Passing values into a generator
Built-in functions
Small functions and the lambda expression
The itertools module
Creating new iterators
Calling functions on elements
Selecting elements
Grouping elements
The functools module
The operator module
The functional module
Revision History and Acknowledgements
References
General
Python-specific
Python documentation
Regular Expression HOWTO
Introduction
Simple Patterns
Matching Characters
Repeating Things
Using Regular Expressions
Compiling Regular Expressions
The Backslash Plague
Performing Matches
Module-Level Functions
Compilation Flags
More Pattern Power
More Metacharacters
Grouping
Non-capturing and Named Groups
Lookahead Assertions
Modifying Strings
Splitting Strings
Search and Replace
Common Problems
Use String Methods
match() versus search()
Greedy versus Non-Greedy
Not Using re.VERBOSE
Feedback
Socket Programming HOWTO
Sockets
History
Creating a Socket
IPC
Using a Socket
Binary Data
Disconnecting
When Sockets Die
Non-blocking Sockets
Performance
Unicode HOWTO
Introduction to Unicode
History of Character Codes
Definitions
Encodings
References
Python’s Unicode Support
The Unicode Type
Unicode Literals in Python Source Code
Unicode Properties
References
Reading and Writing Unicode Data
Unicode filenames
Tips for Writing Unicode-aware Programs
References
Revision History and Acknowledgements
HOWTO Fetch Internet Resources Using urllib2
Introduction
Fetching URLs
Data
Headers
Handling Exceptions
URLError
HTTPError
Error Codes
Wrapping it Up
Number 1
Number 2
info and geturl
Openers and Handlers
Basic Authentication
Proxies
Sockets and Layers
Footnotes
HOWTO Use Python in the web
The low-level view
Common Gateway Interface
Simple script for testing CGI
Setting up CGI on your own server
Common problems with CGI scripts
mod_python
FastCGI and SCGI
Setting up FastCGI
mod_wsgi
Step back: WSGI
WSGI Servers
Case study: MoinMoin
Model-view-controller
Ingredients for web sites
Templates
Data persistence
Frameworks
Some notable frameworks
Django
TurboGears
Other notable frameworks
Glossary
About these documents
Contributors to the Python Documentation
Reporting Bugs in Python
Copyright
History and License
History of the software
Terms and conditions for accessing or otherwise using Python
Licenses and Acknowledgements for Incorporated Software
Mersenne Twister
Sockets
Floating point exception control
MD5 message digest algorithm
Asynchronous socket services
Cookie management
Profiling
Execution tracing
UUencode and UUdecode functions
XML Remote Procedure Calls
test_epoll
Select kqueue
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